{"id":13197,"date":"2024-05-31T08:20:42","date_gmt":"2024-05-31T04:20:42","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/?post_type=documentaire&#038;p=13197"},"modified":"2026-04-02T11:30:53","modified_gmt":"2026-04-02T07:30:53","slug":"mozambique-slaves-on-bourbon-island-based-on-the-manuscript-notes-of-eugene-huet-de-froberville-made-during-his-stay-on-the-island-in-1845","status":"publish","type":"documentaire","link":"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/en\/documentaires\/the-slave-trade\/the-origin-of-the-slaves-on-bourbon-island\/mozambique-slaves-on-bourbon-island-based-on-the-manuscript-notes-of-eugene-huet-de-froberville-made-during-his-stay-on-the-island-in-1845\/","title":{"rendered":"\u2018Mozambique\u2019 slaves on Bourbon island, based on the manuscript notes of Eug\u00e8ne Huet de Froberville, made during his stay on the island in 1845"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Born into a French aristocratic family settled in Mauritius (at the time called \u00cele de France) as from the late 18th century, Eug\u00e8ne Huet de Froberville<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.00581578020792084\" aria-label=\"Eug\u00e8ne Huet de Froberville did not always use his complete name, but would usually sign his correspondence and publications with his shortened name of Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville. In the remaining part of this document, I have used this version of his name.\">&nbsp;<\/span>(1815-1904) himself was born on the island, which became a British colony in 1810. Having left for France with his family in the late 1820s, Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville inherited from his father Prosper a large fortune resulting from colonial crops (notably sugar), enabling him to dedicate his life to art and science. In the mid 1840s, he proposed to carry out a study on \u201cthe races and languages of East Africa south of the Equator\u201d<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.8956876761893318\" aria-label=\"Eyri\u00e8s, Malte-Brun, 1847.\">&nbsp;<\/span>for the French Geographical Society. He himself never set foot on the African continent, but carried out his study while staying on the Mascarene islands, on the basis of interviews with former African captives, referred to as \u2018Mozambiques\u2019.<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-video\"><video controls src=\"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/05\/kb-Rossol-video-Eng.mp4\"><\/video><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>The generic term \u2018Mozambiques\u2019 was used in the late 18th and during the 19th centuries to refer to captives deported to the Mascarene islands from east Africa.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.7715356506919546\" aria-label=\"Alpers, 2001 ; 2005. \">&nbsp;<\/span> Apparently, the African captives appropriated the term when defining themselves and Froberville constantly questioned them with the aim of determining their \u201ctrue nations\u201d.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.7410872715979671\" aria-label=\"Eyri\u00e8s, Malte-Brun, 1847.\">&nbsp;<\/span> <br>Between 1845 and 1847, Froberville questioned over 350 East Africans, mainly men, on Bourbon and Mauritius islands. Most of them had been deported and shipped to these sugar plantation islands between 1810 and 1830, in the context of the illegal slave trade.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.9394536654955086\" aria-label=\"Between 1811 and the early 1830s, some 106,500 were probably deported from Madagascar and the coast of East Africa to Mauritius, Reunion and the Seychelles. Richard Allen, 2001.\">&nbsp;<\/span> From these former captives, Froberville gathered a wealth of information (linguistic, geographical and ethnological) concerning their countries of origin, which we can situate as currently being Mozambique, Malawi and Tanzania.<br>The notes, drawings and correspondence of the French ethnographer were for a long time conserved in the Huet de Froberville private archives, which I was lucky enough to be able to consult at the end of 2018.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.4013254845241281\" aria-label=\"Recently (late 2023), Huet de Froberville\u2019s private archives were donated to the French National Overseas Archives (ANOM) in Aix-en-Provence. Referenced under number 344 APOM, these archives may be accessed by the public as from early 2025. The images (notebooks, and drawings) illustrating this article have been taken from a section of digital archives donated by the owners, the Froberville family, to the Intercontinental Slavery Museum (ISM) on Mauritius Island in early 2023.\">&nbsp;<\/span> An analysis of the notebooks and other manuscript notes made by Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville has made it possible to reconstruct the ethnological study he carried out on the Mascarene islands, identifying 140 former African captives among the 350 questioned by Froberville on Bourbon and Mauritius, as well as tracing their origins and life stories.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.4013254845241281\" aria-label=\"See Klara Boyer-Rossol, 2024.\">&nbsp;<\/span> While on the British colony of Mauritius, the \u2018Mozambiques\u2019 questioned by Froberville in 1846 had been emancipated for about 10 years, on Bourbon island, they were still enslaved.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image is-style-default\">\n<figure data-wp-context=\"{&quot;imageId&quot;:&quot;69f4df6cc81b4&quot;}\" data-wp-interactive=\"core\/image\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-lightbox-container\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"779\" height=\"1200\" data-wp-class--hide=\"state.isContentHidden\" data-wp-class--show=\"state.isContentVisible\" data-wp-init=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" data-wp-on-async--click=\"actions.showLightbox\" data-wp-on-async--load=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" data-wp-on-async-window--resize=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" src=\"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/ME-2013-128-3.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-12932\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/ME-2013-128-3.jpg 779w, https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/ME-2013-128-3-195x300.jpg 195w, https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/ME-2013-128-3-665x1024.jpg 665w, https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/ME-2013-128-3-768x1183.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 767px) 89vw, (max-width: 1000px) 54vw, (max-width: 1071px) 543px, 580px\" \/><button\n\t\t\tclass=\"lightbox-trigger\"\n\t\t\ttype=\"button\"\n\t\t\taria-haspopup=\"dialog\"\n\t\t\taria-label=\"Enlarge\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-init=\"callbacks.initTriggerButton\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-on-async--click=\"actions.showLightbox\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-style--right=\"state.imageButtonRight\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-style--top=\"state.imageButtonTop\"\n\t\t>\n\t\t\t<svg xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"12\" height=\"12\" fill=\"none\" viewBox=\"0 0 12 12\">\n\t\t\t\t<path fill=\"#fff\" d=\"M2 0a2 2 0 0 0-2 2v2h1.5V2a.5.5 0 0 1 .5-.5h2V0H2Zm2 10.5H2a.5.5 0 0 1-.5-.5V8H0v2a2 2 0 0 0 2 2h2v-1.5ZM8 12v-1.5h2a.5.5 0 0 0 .5-.5V8H12v2a2 2 0 0 1-2 2H8Zm2-12a2 2 0 0 1 2 2v2h-1.5V2a.5.5 0 0 0-.5-.5H8V0h2Z\" \/>\n\t\t\t<\/svg>\n\t\t<\/button><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Peoples of Mozambique. Augustin Fran\u00e7ois Lema\u00eetre. 1848. Chiselled engraving. <br>Collection of Vill\u00e8le historical museum. Michel Pol\u00e9nyk collection, inv. ME.2013.128<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<p>In this paper, I will focus on the enslaved<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.6040151177980586\" aria-label=\"I have used the term \u2018enslaved\u2019 to emphasise the process of enslavement undergone by these men, women and children and I use the term \u2018slave\u2019 to refer to the legal status of servile workers.\">&nbsp;<\/span> East Africans interviewed by Froberville during his stay on Bourbon island in November 1845. During his short two-week stay, the ethnographer claimed to have studied some 200 \u2018Mozambiques.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.5296094992845224\" aria-label=\"Huet de Froberville\u2019s private archives (AHF). Letter from Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville to his mother Eug\u00e9nie (maiden name Bon). Port-Louis, 1st January 1846.\">&nbsp;<\/span> Most of them had the task of tending to the crops on the estates or were exploited as craftworkers in one of the towns. Others were enslaved domestic servants. Certain of the \u2018Mozambiques\u2019 interviewed by Froberville gave an oral account (in Creole) of their life story, bearing witness to the violence of slavery on Bourbon, just a few years before abolition: \u201cI spent my days questioning these poor slaves, hearing their dreadful life-story,\u201d wrote Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville in 1846.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.04130640869258895\" aria-label=\"AHF. Letter from Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville to his cousin Am\u00e9lie de Froberville. Mauritius Island, 28th March 1846.\">&nbsp;<\/span> The ethnographer did not record in his notebooks the content of these accounts of slavery on Bourbon, which would have been extremely precious, since accounts of the lives of the enslaved in the French colonies are extremely rare, even non-existent. He was more interested in the countries of origin of these former captives born in East Africa. What we can therefore read in his notebooks are scraps of oral accounts and information (notably of a linguistic character) that the \u2018Mozambiques\u2019 communicated about their East African countries of origin. From these notes, among those he interviewed it has been possible to identify four men and one woman, with their names,<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.16151168403321647\" aria-label=\"In Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville\u2019s notebooks, we can find their original names, and the names they were given or that they took on Bourbon. In the official censuses, the original names were often deleted.\">&nbsp;<\/span> origins, languages, cultural practices, and part of their itinerary from Mozambique to Bourbon. Cross-referencing Froberville\u2019s private archives with elements from the Departmental Archives of Reunion has made it possible to confirm the identity of two of these enslaved persons, and to complete the gaps in their itineraries, as well as their possible lineage.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">The \u2018Mozambiques\u2019 interviewed by Froberville in Saint-Denis, Sainte-Marie and Sainte\u2011Suzanne<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>After 79 days at sea sailing from France, Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville and his wife Caroline landed on Bourbon on 12th November 1845, where they then spent between 17 and 20 days, before leaving for Mauritius.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.23394734653816474\" aria-label=\"AHF. Note by Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville. Saint-Denis, 12th November 1845; Letter from Caroline de Froberville to her mother-in-law Eug\u00e9nie. Port-Louis, 28th December 1845.\">&nbsp;<\/span> Their correspondence during this stay on Bourbon has enabled us to reconstruct the context of the ethnological and linguistic study carried out by Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville among the enslaved workers originating in Africa. In a letter sent to his cousin Am\u00e9lie de Froberville, Eug\u00e8ne declares that during his stay on Bourbon, he carried out \u201ca study of the Africans working on the estates\u201d.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.7776796620694861\" aria-label=\"AHF. Letter from Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville to his cousin Am\u00e9lie de Froberville. Mauritius Island 28th March 1846.\">&nbsp;<\/span> Hubert Gerbeau demonstrated that the illegal trade on Bourbon had directly supported the sugar economy on the estates.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.3230032540265282\" aria-label=\"Between 1817 and 1835, some 50,000 captives were probably brought into Bourbon island alone. Hubert Gerbeau, 2002.\">&nbsp;<\/span> Other members of the group of \u2018Mozambiques\u2019 referred to by Froberville were craftsmen employed in workshops or as domestic workers in Saint-Denis. Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville gained access to these slaves through the slave owners themselves, with whom Froberville and his wife were staying. In Saint-Denis, they stayed with Adolphe Lory, in Sainte-Marie with the widow of Gustave de Tourris and in Sainte-Suzanne with Louis de Tourris (Gustave\u2019s son) who owned an estate there.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.8753078531921321\" aria-label=\"AHF. Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville, 1848.\">&nbsp;<\/span> The Reunion Departmental Archives of have provided us with precious information concerning the Lory and the de Tourris families, who were settlers coming from Mauritius to Reunion, respectively in 1826 and 1827.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.044253435888234494\" aria-label=\"Reunion Departmental Archives (ADR). Census 6M 321. L. Saint-Denis. 1845. ADR. Census 6M 446. Q-X. Sainte-Suzanne. 1841; 6M 460. M-Z. Sainte-Suzanne. 1848.\">&nbsp;<\/span> During the same period, in 1827, Prosper Huet de Froberville (1791-1839), Eug\u00e8ne\u2019s father, left Mauritius with his family to settle in France. At the head of several commercial companies (registered in Mauritius, and in France), Prosper had set up economic relations in Bordeaux and Liverpool, apparently taking advantage of the more favourable conditions offered by the British regarding the price for sugar brought in from the colony of Mauritius as from 1825.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.09130871115560346\" aria-label=\"Allen, 2001, p. 114.\">&nbsp;<\/span> We can easily conclude that Adolphe Lory (an industrialist and trader), Gustave de Tourris (an industrialist settled on the island) and Prosper Huet de Froberville (a trader), all three of the same generation and born in Mauritius, maintained social and\/or economic relations. The fact that Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville provided Lory the elder with information concerning the sugar industry on Mauritius supports this hypothesis.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.9508534592443942\" aria-label=\"AHF. Letter from Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville to Adolphe Lory. Port Louis, Mauritius island, 15th December.\">&nbsp;<\/span> It is also likely that Froberville and his spouse had family links with certain important land-owning families on Reunion. Eug\u00e9nie Huet de Froberville (maiden name Bon), was a distant relative of Mme Desbassayns. The latter had invited the young Froberville couple to stay on her estate in November 1845, but Mme de Vill\u00e8le\u2019s daughter having fallen sick, the invitation was not taken up.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.2655834741710046\" aria-label=\"AHF. Letter from Caroline de Froberville to her mother-in-law Eug\u00e9nie. Port-Louis, 28th December 1845.\">&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville devoted his stay on Bourbon island to the study of East African languages.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.9771985163671413\" aria-label=\"AHF. Letter from Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville to his cousin cousine Am\u00e9lie de Froberville. Mauritius Island, 28th March 1846.\">&nbsp;<\/span> His notebooks contain a large amount of vocabulary obtained from the \u2018Mozambiques\u2019 in Saint-Denis, Sainte-Marie and Sainte-Suzanne. Froberville thanked the estate owners Adolphe Lory and Louis de Tourris for granting him access to \u201cthe East African slaves in their possession, the former in his workshops in St Denis and the latter on his estate in Sainte-Suzanne\u201d.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.048957203400676885\" aria-label=\"AHF. Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville, Notes ethnographiques sur l\u2019Afrique orientale 1846-1847 (not dated).\">&nbsp;<\/span> \u2018Makua\u2019 and \u2018Niambane\u2019 vocabulary was also collected in Sainte-Marie on the estate of the widow de Tourris, Louis Nas de Tourris\u2019s mother, who had invited the Froberville couple to spend a few days on her estate.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.412650197363694\" aria-label=\"AHF. Letter from Caroline de Froberville to her mother-in-law Eug\u00e9nie. Port-Louis, 28th December 1845.\">&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-columns is-layout-flex wp-container-core-columns-is-layout-9d6595d7 wp-block-columns-is-layout-flex\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\">\n<figure data-wp-context=\"{&quot;imageId&quot;:&quot;69f4df6cc9153&quot;}\" data-wp-interactive=\"core\/image\" class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-style-default wp-lightbox-container\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"763\" height=\"1000\" data-wp-class--hide=\"state.isContentHidden\" data-wp-class--show=\"state.isContentVisible\" data-wp-init=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" data-wp-on-async--click=\"actions.showLightbox\" data-wp-on-async--load=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" data-wp-on-async-window--resize=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" src=\"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/Fig-1-Cahier-Manika-2.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-12787\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/Fig-1-Cahier-Manika-2.jpg 763w, https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/Fig-1-Cahier-Manika-2-229x300.jpg 229w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 706px) 89vw, (max-width: 767px) 82vw, 740px\" \/><button\n\t\t\tclass=\"lightbox-trigger\"\n\t\t\ttype=\"button\"\n\t\t\taria-haspopup=\"dialog\"\n\t\t\taria-label=\"Enlarge\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-init=\"callbacks.initTriggerButton\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-on-async--click=\"actions.showLightbox\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-style--right=\"state.imageButtonRight\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-style--top=\"state.imageButtonTop\"\n\t\t>\n\t\t\t<svg xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"12\" height=\"12\" fill=\"none\" viewBox=\"0 0 12 12\">\n\t\t\t\t<path fill=\"#fff\" d=\"M2 0a2 2 0 0 0-2 2v2h1.5V2a.5.5 0 0 1 .5-.5h2V0H2Zm2 10.5H2a.5.5 0 0 1-.5-.5V8H0v2a2 2 0 0 0 2 2h2v-1.5ZM8 12v-1.5h2a.5.5 0 0 0 .5-.5V8H12v2a2 2 0 0 1-2 2H8Zm2-12a2 2 0 0 1 2 2v2h-1.5V2a.5.5 0 0 0-.5-.5H8V0h2Z\" \/>\n\t\t\t<\/svg>\n\t\t<\/button><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville. <em>Carnet Makina<\/em>. Interview with Virginie and Onsinanga, slaves belonging to Lory in Saint-Denis. <br>\u00a9 Private Archives and Collections of Huet de Froberville\/Photographer F. Lauginie \u00a9International Slavery Museum (ISM), Mauritius island<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\">\n<figure data-wp-context=\"{&quot;imageId&quot;:&quot;69f4df6cca203&quot;}\" data-wp-interactive=\"core\/image\" class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-style-default wp-lightbox-container\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"759\" height=\"1000\" data-wp-class--hide=\"state.isContentHidden\" data-wp-class--show=\"state.isContentVisible\" data-wp-init=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" data-wp-on-async--click=\"actions.showLightbox\" data-wp-on-async--load=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" data-wp-on-async-window--resize=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" src=\"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/Fig-2-Cahier-Mudhiaua-1.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-12791\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/Fig-2-Cahier-Mudhiaua-1.jpg 759w, https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/Fig-2-Cahier-Mudhiaua-1-228x300.jpg 228w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 706px) 89vw, (max-width: 767px) 82vw, 740px\" \/><button\n\t\t\tclass=\"lightbox-trigger\"\n\t\t\ttype=\"button\"\n\t\t\taria-haspopup=\"dialog\"\n\t\t\taria-label=\"Enlarge\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-init=\"callbacks.initTriggerButton\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-on-async--click=\"actions.showLightbox\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-style--right=\"state.imageButtonRight\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-style--top=\"state.imageButtonTop\"\n\t\t>\n\t\t\t<svg xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"12\" height=\"12\" fill=\"none\" viewBox=\"0 0 12 12\">\n\t\t\t\t<path fill=\"#fff\" d=\"M2 0a2 2 0 0 0-2 2v2h1.5V2a.5.5 0 0 1 .5-.5h2V0H2Zm2 10.5H2a.5.5 0 0 1-.5-.5V8H0v2a2 2 0 0 0 2 2h2v-1.5ZM8 12v-1.5h2a.5.5 0 0 0 .5-.5V8H12v2a2 2 0 0 1-2 2H8Zm2-12a2 2 0 0 1 2 2v2h-1.5V2a.5.5 0 0 0-.5-.5H8V0h2Z\" \/>\n\t\t\t<\/svg>\n\t\t<\/button><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville. <em>Carnet Mudhiaua<\/em>. Interview with Mkuto Germain (slave belonging to de Tourris) in Sainte-Marie (estate of Sainte-Suzanne) <br>\u00a9Private Archives and Collections of Huet de Froberville\/Photographer F. Lauginie \u00a9International Slavery Museum (ISM), Mauritius island<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<p>In Saint-Denis, Froberville spent his time collecting \u201cvocabulary from all the Makua Blacks he met\u201d, his wife Caroline declared.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.5142612665304018\" aria-label=\"AHF. Letter from Caroline de Froberville to her mother-in-law Eug\u00e9nie. Port-Louis, 28th December 1845.\">&nbsp;<\/span> Apparently, Froberville interviewed mainly men, who worked in large numbers on the estates. The men slaves referred to as \u2018Cafres\u2019 working on the de Tourris estate in Sainte-Suzanne were nearly all assigned to working in the fields.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.7652537282487881\" aria-label=\"ADR. Census 6M 442. L-W. Sainte-Suzanne. 1840.\">&nbsp;<\/span> In Sainte-Marie, on the de Tourris estate, \u201cEug\u00e8ne continued to work on Makua and Niambane\u201d.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.26799834000599754\" aria-label=\"AHF. Letter from Caroline de Froberville to her mother-in-law Eug\u00e9nie. Port-Louis, 28th December 1845.\">&nbsp;<\/span> All in all, on Bourbon island Froberville drew up four lists of vocabulary in the languages of the \u2018Moadjaoua\u2019 [Yao], \u2018Maravi\u2019, \u2018Makoua\u2019 [Makua], and \u2018Mak\u014dssi\u2019 [or \u2018Cafre\u2019, also confused with the category referred to as \u2018Niambane\u2019]\u201d.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.4130995193199951\" aria-label=\"AHF. Letter from Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville to his cousin Am\u00e9lie de Froberville. Mauritius Island, 28th March 1846.\">&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-columns is-layout-flex wp-container-core-columns-is-layout-9d6595d7 wp-block-columns-is-layout-flex\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\">\n<figure data-wp-context=\"{&quot;imageId&quot;:&quot;69f4df6ccb30f&quot;}\" data-wp-interactive=\"core\/image\" class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-style-default wp-lightbox-container\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1300\" height=\"911\" data-wp-class--hide=\"state.isContentHidden\" data-wp-class--show=\"state.isContentVisible\" data-wp-init=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" data-wp-on-async--click=\"actions.showLightbox\" data-wp-on-async--load=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" data-wp-on-async-window--resize=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" src=\"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/2019-1-16.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-6536\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/2019-1-16.jpg 1300w, https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/2019-1-16-300x210.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/2019-1-16-768x538.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/2019-1-16-1024x718.jpg 1024w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 767px) 89vw, (max-width: 1000px) 54vw, (max-width: 1071px) 543px, 580px\" \/><button\n\t\t\tclass=\"lightbox-trigger\"\n\t\t\ttype=\"button\"\n\t\t\taria-haspopup=\"dialog\"\n\t\t\taria-label=\"Enlarge\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-init=\"callbacks.initTriggerButton\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-on-async--click=\"actions.showLightbox\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-style--right=\"state.imageButtonRight\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-style--top=\"state.imageButtonTop\"\n\t\t>\n\t\t\t<svg xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"12\" height=\"12\" fill=\"none\" viewBox=\"0 0 12 12\">\n\t\t\t\t<path fill=\"#fff\" d=\"M2 0a2 2 0 0 0-2 2v2h1.5V2a.5.5 0 0 1 .5-.5h2V0H2Zm2 10.5H2a.5.5 0 0 1-.5-.5V8H0v2a2 2 0 0 0 2 2h2v-1.5ZM8 12v-1.5h2a.5.5 0 0 0 .5-.5V8H12v2a2 2 0 0 1-2 2H8Zm2-12a2 2 0 0 1 2 2v2h-1.5V2a.5.5 0 0 0-.5-.5H8V0h2Z\" \/>\n\t\t\t<\/svg>\n\t\t<\/button><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">The Mozambique Channel, Island of Madagascar, the States of Monomotapa and neighbouring kingdoms. Rigobert Bonne, cartographer; Andr\u00e9, engraver. 18th century. Intaglio; coloured highlights. <br>Collection of Vill\u00e8le historical museum. Michel Pol\u00e9nyk collection, inv. 2019.1.16<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<p>The Yao and Makua languages, as well as those of the Maravi (Chewa and Manganja) are still spoken today in Mozambique. The term \u2018Niambane\u2019 or \u2018Yambane\u2019 was a general term used on Bourbon island, when referring to all the captives deported through the port of Inhambane,<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.5639353310786279\" aria-label=\"AH.F. Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville, Cahier Manika (page 28, pencil).\">&nbsp;<\/span>located in the south of Mozambique, and was not based on any socio-linguistic reality. The vocabulary collected from those referred to as \u2018Niambane\u2019 probably originated in the languages commonly used in the region around Inhambane.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The fact that in 1845, former captives of the illegal slave trade, brought onto Bourbon island sometimes several decades previously, remembered, and perhaps practised African languages appears as a form of cultural resistance against the dehumanising effect of slavery.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">The violence of the system of slavery on Bourbon island<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>The enslaved Africans interviewed by Froberville provided oral accounts of their lives using the Creole language that Froberville, who was born on Mauritius island, had not difficulty understanding. For the society of estate owners on Bourbon, this aristocrat arriving from Paris was seen as a curiosity, an eccentric spending his days questioning slaves.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u201cThe settlers could not understand my interest in this task and several reacted with derogatory smiles. The idea of chatting with a Black, seeking out feelings and ideas from under that ugly envelope! I certainly had nothing better to do! they would say,\u201d wrote Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.458187952994207\" aria-label=\"AHF. Letter from Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville to his cousin Am\u00e9lie de Froberville. Mauritius Island, 28th March 1846.\">&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Discussions with the masters and the accounts given by the enslaved apparently convinced Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville that the violence of the system on Bourbon island was so appalling that slavery in the French colonies would have to be abolished. The women estate owners were particularly brutal with their slaves.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\">\n<p>\u201cMy conversations with the inhabitants of Bourbon island have turned me into a philanthropist: I do not believe that slavery is beneficial for the Blacks. These people, considered so coarse, experience misery, something I could feel when I saw their tears brought on by the the brutality of their treatment by the ladies and young girls. Mme Trollope has perfectly expressed the way in which the island\u2019s mistresses speak to and make use of their slaves. There is nothing more revolting,\u201d Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville wrote in a letter to his mother.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.7462663810870414\" aria-label=\"AHF. Letter from Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville to his mother Eug\u00e9nie. Port-Louis, 1st January 1846.\">&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n<p>During a trip to Salazie, his wife Caroline was seated in a sedan placed on poles carried by slaves, each in turn. These slaves, who had apparently previously transported \u201call the women on Bourbon\u201d, belonged to Mme Lory, the owner of an estate close to the mountains of Salazie.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.6441522579541452\" aria-label=\"AHF. Letter from Caroline de Froberville to her mother-in-law Eug\u00e9nie. Port-Louis, 28th December 1845.\">&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-columns is-layout-flex wp-container-core-columns-is-layout-9d6595d7 wp-block-columns-is-layout-flex\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\">\n<figure data-wp-context=\"{&quot;imageId&quot;:&quot;69f4df6ccccb3&quot;}\" data-wp-interactive=\"core\/image\" class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-style-default wp-lightbox-container\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1200\" height=\"852\" data-wp-class--hide=\"state.isContentHidden\" data-wp-class--show=\"state.isContentVisible\" data-wp-init=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" data-wp-on-async--click=\"actions.showLightbox\" data-wp-on-async--load=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" data-wp-on-async-window--resize=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" src=\"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/1989_540_41.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-12800\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/1989_540_41.jpg 1200w, https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/1989_540_41-300x213.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/1989_540_41-1024x727.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/1989_540_41-768x545.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 767px) 89vw, (max-width: 1000px) 54vw, (max-width: 1071px) 543px, 580px\" \/><button\n\t\t\tclass=\"lightbox-trigger\"\n\t\t\ttype=\"button\"\n\t\t\taria-haspopup=\"dialog\"\n\t\t\taria-label=\"Enlarge\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-init=\"callbacks.initTriggerButton\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-on-async--click=\"actions.showLightbox\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-style--right=\"state.imageButtonRight\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-style--top=\"state.imageButtonTop\"\n\t\t>\n\t\t\t<svg xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"12\" height=\"12\" fill=\"none\" viewBox=\"0 0 12 12\">\n\t\t\t\t<path fill=\"#fff\" d=\"M2 0a2 2 0 0 0-2 2v2h1.5V2a.5.5 0 0 1 .5-.5h2V0H2Zm2 10.5H2a.5.5 0 0 1-.5-.5V8H0v2a2 2 0 0 0 2 2h2v-1.5ZM8 12v-1.5h2a.5.5 0 0 0 .5-.5V8H12v2a2 2 0 0 1-2 2H8Zm2-12a2 2 0 0 1 2 2v2h-1.5V2a.5.5 0 0 0-.5-.5H8V0h2Z\" \/>\n\t\t\t<\/svg>\n\t\t<\/button><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><em>Passage de la Rivi\u00e8re des Remparts<\/em> (Crossing the Rivi\u00e8re des Remparts) drawing by Jean-Baptiste Genevi\u00e8ve Marcellin Bory de Saint-Vincent, based on a work by Patu de Rosemond; etcher, engraver; Adam, engraver. [1804]. Lithograph. In <em>Voyage dans les quatre principales \u00eeles des mers d\u2019Afrique<\/em>\u2026, by J.-B.-G.-M. Bory de St-Vincent, pl. 39. <br>Collection of Vill\u00e8le historical museum, inv. 1989.540.41 <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<p>Born in Mauritius in 1815, in a colonial slave-owning society, Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville had left his native island to settle in France at an early age (the age of 12). It was during his stay on Bourbon in 1845 that he realised that slavery was \u201csomething dreadful\u201d. This rejection of the violence of slavery by a member of the colonial elite of the Mascarene islands went against the aristocratic memory, which for a long time attempted to communicate the image of a form of slavery on Bourbon as more \u2018human\u2019 than elsewhere.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.8248758434418393\" aria-label=\"Hubert Gerbeau, 2002.\">&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\">\n<p>\u201cThe settlers on Bourbon, who issue declarations in which they officially claim that the slave is morally and physically the happiest in the world, know that they are officially lying. This political-social bad faith does not prevent the inhabitants of Bourbon from being friendly and hospitable. They show great goodwill to anyone with a white skin,\u201d wrote Froberville.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.16190390230356977\" aria-label=\"AHF. Letter from Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville to his cousin Am\u00e9lie de Froberville. Mauritius Island, 28th March 1846.\">&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n<p>Actually, Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville\u2019s discourse was very ambiguous, since he adapted it greatly, depending on who he was addressing. With his hosts, there is no doubt that he did not share his abolitionist ideas. Froberville was fully a member of the society of masters and even the colonial elite of the Mascarene islands. It was his high rank that actually enabled him to partly transgress the customs of the period, creating a different relationship between a member of the society of white masters and African slaves: a relationship based on domination, steeped in prejudices, at the same time recognising the enslaved as having knowledge and being cultural actors.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Portraits of the East African enslaved on Bourbon island<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Among the native Africans interviewed by Froberville on Bourbon in 1845, are those named Virginie, Onsin\u0101nga, Mal\u0101ssi and Mtchirima Thomas, who were legally slaves belonging to Adolphe Lory in Saint-Denis, as well as Mk\u016bto Germain, a slave belonging to Louis de Tourris on his estate in Sainte-Suzanne.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Virginie<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>The account given by Virginie is all the more exceptional as she was the only woman interviewed by Froberville on Bourbon island whose name has been recorded. Froberville does not record her original name, only the one she was given on arriving on Bourbon island, to where she was deported before being enslaved.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Virginie was apparently born around 1809 in the south of what is currently Mozambique. Froberville presents her as a \u2018Makossi-Niambane\u2019, which indicates that she came from this region in the south. She provided the \u2018Makossi\u2019 vocabulary, recorded by Froberville in his notebooks in the form of a French-Makossi lexicography<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.04650259964855641\" aria-label=\"Froberville\u2019s notebooks contain lists of French words with their translations into the various East African languages collected. The interviewer had previously prepared lists of words to be translated.\">&nbsp;<\/span> of 20 or so pages.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.48320537493285154\" aria-label=\"More detailed research has made it possible to identify the \u2018Makossi\u2019 language, which is close to that of the Chopi in the south of Mozambique. There are currently one and a half million speakers of Chopi or \u2018Cicopi\u2019.\">&nbsp;<\/span> Apart from the memories of her language, Virginie had the cultural markings of her country of origin. Froberville mentions the \u201ctattoo in relief\u201d present on Virginie\u2019s forehead, representing a line of \u2018dots\u2019 going from the top of her forehead down to the tip of her nose, characteristic of the \u2018Niambane\u2019. Such tattoos were created using a small hook and a knife: \u201cThe skin is lifted using the hook, then a cut is made\u201d.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.013982606278703624\" aria-label=\"AHF. Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville, <em>Cahier Manika<\/em> (page 48, pencil).\">&nbsp;<\/span> This was, in fact, a form of scarification commonly applied among various groups in the south of Mozambique.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image is-style-default\">\n<figure data-wp-context=\"{&quot;imageId&quot;:&quot;69f4df6cce6ac&quot;}\" data-wp-interactive=\"core\/image\" class=\"aligncenter size-full is-resized wp-lightbox-container\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1092\" height=\"1000\" data-wp-class--hide=\"state.isContentHidden\" data-wp-class--show=\"state.isContentVisible\" data-wp-init=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" data-wp-on-async--click=\"actions.showLightbox\" data-wp-on-async--load=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" data-wp-on-async-window--resize=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" src=\"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/Fig-3-Dessin-dune-femme-makossi-ou-niambane-tatouee-.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-12804\" style=\"width:900px;height:auto\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/Fig-3-Dessin-dune-femme-makossi-ou-niambane-tatouee-.jpg 1092w, https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/Fig-3-Dessin-dune-femme-makossi-ou-niambane-tatouee--300x275.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/Fig-3-Dessin-dune-femme-makossi-ou-niambane-tatouee--1024x938.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/Fig-3-Dessin-dune-femme-makossi-ou-niambane-tatouee--768x703.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 767px) 89vw, (max-width: 1000px) 54vw, (max-width: 1071px) 543px, 580px\" \/><button\n\t\t\tclass=\"lightbox-trigger\"\n\t\t\ttype=\"button\"\n\t\t\taria-haspopup=\"dialog\"\n\t\t\taria-label=\"Enlarge\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-init=\"callbacks.initTriggerButton\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-on-async--click=\"actions.showLightbox\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-style--right=\"state.imageButtonRight\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-style--top=\"state.imageButtonTop\"\n\t\t>\n\t\t\t<svg xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"12\" height=\"12\" fill=\"none\" viewBox=\"0 0 12 12\">\n\t\t\t\t<path fill=\"#fff\" d=\"M2 0a2 2 0 0 0-2 2v2h1.5V2a.5.5 0 0 1 .5-.5h2V0H2Zm2 10.5H2a.5.5 0 0 1-.5-.5V8H0v2a2 2 0 0 0 2 2h2v-1.5ZM8 12v-1.5h2a.5.5 0 0 0 .5-.5V8H12v2a2 2 0 0 1-2 2H8Zm2-12a2 2 0 0 1 2 2v2h-1.5V2a.5.5 0 0 0-.5-.5H8V0h2Z\" \/>\n\t\t\t<\/svg>\n\t\t<\/button><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville. Drawing of a woman, with a tattoo on her forehead characteristic of the tribes referred to as \u2018Makossi\u2019 and \u2018Niambane\u2019 <br>\u00a9 Private Archives and Collections of Huet de Froberville\/Photographer F. Lauginie \u00a9International Slavery Museum (ISM), Mauritius island<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<p>The above drawing was probably one made by Forberville during his stay on Bourbon Island in November 1845. It is the only portrait of a \u2018Niambane\u2019 woman drawn by Froberville, and could well represent Virginie.<br>The fact of bearing a tattoo may indicate that the person had already been initiated into the knowledge of his or her original social group before being brutally removed from it. For boys, this involved undergoing the rites of circumcision, and for girls having their first period. We can conclude that Virginie was at least 10 years old when she was deported, during the 1820s or the early 1830s, taken from the coast in the south of Mozambique, probably the coastal zone around Inhambane, before being shipped to Bourbon. Several illegal slave-trade expeditions transporting captives referred to as \u2018Yambane\u2019 were recorded on Bourbon during this period, notably those involving the vessel <em>Deux-Fr\u00e8res<\/em> in 1826 and that of <em>Marie <\/em>in 1827.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.18809101390738125\" aria-label=\"Hubert Gerbeau, 2005, p. 405.\">&nbsp;<\/span> Virginie is recorded in the 1840s censuses as one of the slaves belonging to Lory senior in Saint Denis.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.9093975336787887\" aria-label=\"ADR. Census 6M 356. L. Saint-Denis. 1848; 6M 330 J-L. Saint-Denis 1846; 6M 321 L. Saint-Denis 1845; 6M 304 Saint-Denis 1841; 6M 300 L. Saint-Denis 1840.\">&nbsp;<\/span> The conversations between Froberville and Virginie in 1845 may have taken place in the mansion belonging to Adolphe Lory in Saint-Denis. In 1848, Virginie was listed as a domestic worker, aged 39, of the \u2018Mozambique\u2019 caste, measuring 1m60 and bearing \u201cspecific signs or marks of her country of origin\u201d:<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.4416094506832342\" aria-label=\"ADR. Census 6M 356. L. Saint-Denis. 1848.\">&nbsp;<\/span> the facial tattoos described by Froberville.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Mal\u0101ssi and Onsin\u0101nga<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>Other slaves belonging to Lory interviewed by Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville in Saint-Denis in 1845 were described as being \u2018Makossi-Niambane\u2019. Among these, Mal\u0101ssi and Onsin\u0101nga [Onsign\u0101nga] respectfully provided \u2018Niambane\u2019 and \u2018Makossi\u2019 vocabularies.<br>Onsin\u0101nga recounted that he had left his country at a young age. From the toponyms and ethnonyms given, we can conclude that he was originally from the south of what is now Mozambique. Onsin\u0101nga provided Froberville with \u2018Makossi\u2019 vocabulary and may have discussed grammar and phonetics with him. Concerning this African slave, Froberville noted \u201cthe man is highly intelligent.\u201d<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.12975114531004972\" aria-label=\"AHF. Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville, <em>Cahier Manika<\/em> (page 28, pencil).\">&nbsp;<\/span><br>Of the various \u2018Niambane\u2019 cultural traditions (tattoos and decorative practices<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.14133900826834478\" aria-label=\"AHF. Froberville mentions a sort of sheath tightly covering the penis, referred to as a <em>mba\u00ef<\/em>. Ibid.\">&nbsp;<\/span>), Froberville mentions their music and dancing. He mentions their \u201chideous accoutrements when dancing\u201d.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.5323149023105413\" aria-label=\"AHF. Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville, <em>Cahier Manika<\/em> (page 28, pencil).\">&nbsp;<\/span> The remark, steeped in prejudice, is interesting in that it suggests that Froberville was actually able to observe scenes of \u2018Niambane\u2019 dances on Bourbon in 1845. We have beautiful drawings and sketches made by Froberville representing these \u2018Niambane\u2019 dances, showing their movements dancing in the round or lines of men and women sharing cultures.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-columns is-layout-flex wp-container-core-columns-is-layout-9d6595d7 wp-block-columns-is-layout-flex\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\">\n<figure data-wp-context=\"{&quot;imageId&quot;:&quot;69f4df6ccfa39&quot;}\" data-wp-interactive=\"core\/image\" class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-style-default wp-lightbox-container\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1300\" height=\"975\" data-wp-class--hide=\"state.isContentHidden\" data-wp-class--show=\"state.isContentVisible\" data-wp-init=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" data-wp-on-async--click=\"actions.showLightbox\" data-wp-on-async--load=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" data-wp-on-async-window--resize=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" src=\"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/Fig-4-Danseurs-dits-Niambane-femmes-a-la-file.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-12808\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/Fig-4-Danseurs-dits-Niambane-femmes-a-la-file.jpg 1300w, https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/Fig-4-Danseurs-dits-Niambane-femmes-a-la-file-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/Fig-4-Danseurs-dits-Niambane-femmes-a-la-file-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/Fig-4-Danseurs-dits-Niambane-femmes-a-la-file-768x576.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 767px) 89vw, (max-width: 1000px) 54vw, (max-width: 1071px) 543px, 580px\" \/><button\n\t\t\tclass=\"lightbox-trigger\"\n\t\t\ttype=\"button\"\n\t\t\taria-haspopup=\"dialog\"\n\t\t\taria-label=\"Enlarge\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-init=\"callbacks.initTriggerButton\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-on-async--click=\"actions.showLightbox\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-style--right=\"state.imageButtonRight\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-style--top=\"state.imageButtonTop\"\n\t\t>\n\t\t\t<svg xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"12\" height=\"12\" fill=\"none\" viewBox=\"0 0 12 12\">\n\t\t\t\t<path fill=\"#fff\" d=\"M2 0a2 2 0 0 0-2 2v2h1.5V2a.5.5 0 0 1 .5-.5h2V0H2Zm2 10.5H2a.5.5 0 0 1-.5-.5V8H0v2a2 2 0 0 0 2 2h2v-1.5ZM8 12v-1.5h2a.5.5 0 0 0 .5-.5V8H12v2a2 2 0 0 1-2 2H8Zm2-12a2 2 0 0 1 2 2v2h-1.5V2a.5.5 0 0 0-.5-.5H8V0h2Z\" \/>\n\t\t\t<\/svg>\n\t\t<\/button><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville. Drawings of \u2018Niambane\u2019 dancers. <br>\u00a9 Private Archives and Collections of Huet de Froberville\/Photographer F. Lauginie \u00a9International Slavery Museum (ISM), Mauritius island<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\">\n<figure data-wp-context=\"{&quot;imageId&quot;:&quot;69f4df6cd05b9&quot;}\" data-wp-interactive=\"core\/image\" class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-style-default wp-lightbox-container\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1300\" height=\"975\" data-wp-class--hide=\"state.isContentHidden\" data-wp-class--show=\"state.isContentVisible\" data-wp-init=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" data-wp-on-async--click=\"actions.showLightbox\" data-wp-on-async--load=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" data-wp-on-async-window--resize=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" src=\"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/Fig-5-Danseurs-et-musiciens-dits-Niambane-avec-tatouages.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-12812\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/Fig-5-Danseurs-et-musiciens-dits-Niambane-avec-tatouages.jpg 1300w, https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/Fig-5-Danseurs-et-musiciens-dits-Niambane-avec-tatouages-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/Fig-5-Danseurs-et-musiciens-dits-Niambane-avec-tatouages-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/Fig-5-Danseurs-et-musiciens-dits-Niambane-avec-tatouages-768x576.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 767px) 89vw, (max-width: 1000px) 54vw, (max-width: 1071px) 543px, 580px\" \/><button\n\t\t\tclass=\"lightbox-trigger\"\n\t\t\ttype=\"button\"\n\t\t\taria-haspopup=\"dialog\"\n\t\t\taria-label=\"Enlarge\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-init=\"callbacks.initTriggerButton\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-on-async--click=\"actions.showLightbox\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-style--right=\"state.imageButtonRight\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-style--top=\"state.imageButtonTop\"\n\t\t>\n\t\t\t<svg xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"12\" height=\"12\" fill=\"none\" viewBox=\"0 0 12 12\">\n\t\t\t\t<path fill=\"#fff\" d=\"M2 0a2 2 0 0 0-2 2v2h1.5V2a.5.5 0 0 1 .5-.5h2V0H2Zm2 10.5H2a.5.5 0 0 1-.5-.5V8H0v2a2 2 0 0 0 2 2h2v-1.5ZM8 12v-1.5h2a.5.5 0 0 0 .5-.5V8H12v2a2 2 0 0 1-2 2H8Zm2-12a2 2 0 0 1 2 2v2h-1.5V2a.5.5 0 0 0-.5-.5H8V0h2Z\" \/>\n\t\t\t<\/svg>\n\t\t<\/button><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville. Drawings of \u2018Niambane\u2019 dancers. <br>\u00a9 Private Archives and Collections of Huet de Froberville\/Photographer F. Lauginie \u00a9International Slavery Museum (ISM), Mauritius island<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div style=\"height:19px\" aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"wp-block-spacer\"><\/div>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Mtchirima Thomas<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>Between 20th and 25th November 1845, Froberville interviewed another one of Adolphe Lory\u2019s slaves in his workshops in Saint-Denis. Born around 1806-1810 in what is currently Mozambique, \u201cMtchirima Thomas\u201d belonged to the group of Maravi origin, which occupied a vast territory in the centre-west of Mozambique, in a region sharing a border with Malawi. The toponyms and ethnonyms he mentions have made it possible to locate the region he came from fairly precisely: two weeks south of Lake Niassa and a day\u2019s walk from Senna, a Portuguese garrison along the Zambesi river, that the Maravi called \u2018Lomb\u0101dzi\u2019. From the interior of the Zambezi valley, he was taken by force, probably to the port of Quelimane. His name \u2018Mtchirima\u2019 is undoubtedly a term derived from \u2018Tsirimane\u2019, used locally to refer to Quelimane. Around 1825,<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.27065854567072045\" aria-label=\"AHF. Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville, <em>Cahier Maravi<\/em> (page 41, pencil).\">&nbsp;<\/span>when he was 15 or 16 years old, he was deported to Bourbon, in the context of the illegal slave trade. Several clandestine expeditions recorded by the Portuguese in Quelimane in 1827 and 1828 can be linked to ships involved in the trade supplying slaves for Bourbon.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.49550112515388656\" aria-label=\"Hubert Gerbeau, 2005, p. 424. \">&nbsp;<\/span> Once on the island, Mtchirima was given the name of Thomas. In the workshops in Saint-Denis, where the slaves belonging to Lory were forced to work as labourers, smiths, boilermen or foundry workers, Mtchirima Thomas provided Froberville with a large quantity of \u2018Maravi\u2019 vocabulary (some 80 pages). Among the slaves listed as belonging to the Lory and Pitel company in Saint Denis in 1841, there is a certain Thomas, aged 35, labourer, bearing the \u201cmarks of his country\u201d.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.786803477900603\" aria-label=\"ADR. Census 6M 304. Saint-Denis. 1841.\">&nbsp;<\/span> All these elements correspond to the data Froberville collected from Mtchirima Thomas, who had the tattoo of the Maravi. This consisted in a sort of star carved out on the forehead, the temples and the chest. The Maravi would also file their incisors down to a point.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.29474496691345964\" aria-label=\"AHF. Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville, <em>Cahier Maravi<\/em> (page 41, pencil).\">&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image is-style-default\">\n<figure data-wp-context=\"{&quot;imageId&quot;:&quot;69f4df6cd13c7&quot;}\" data-wp-interactive=\"core\/image\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-lightbox-container\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"750\" height=\"1000\" data-wp-class--hide=\"state.isContentHidden\" data-wp-class--show=\"state.isContentVisible\" data-wp-init=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" data-wp-on-async--click=\"actions.showLightbox\" data-wp-on-async--load=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" data-wp-on-async-window--resize=\"callbacks.setButtonStyles\" src=\"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/Fig-6-Portrait-dessine-dun-Maravi-portant-des-tatouages-sous-forme-detoiles.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-12816\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/Fig-6-Portrait-dessine-dun-Maravi-portant-des-tatouages-sous-forme-detoiles.jpg 750w, https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/Fig-6-Portrait-dessine-dun-Maravi-portant-des-tatouages-sous-forme-detoiles-225x300.jpg 225w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 706px) 89vw, (max-width: 767px) 82vw, 740px\" \/><button\n\t\t\tclass=\"lightbox-trigger\"\n\t\t\ttype=\"button\"\n\t\t\taria-haspopup=\"dialog\"\n\t\t\taria-label=\"Enlarge\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-init=\"callbacks.initTriggerButton\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-on-async--click=\"actions.showLightbox\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-style--right=\"state.imageButtonRight\"\n\t\t\tdata-wp-style--top=\"state.imageButtonTop\"\n\t\t>\n\t\t\t<svg xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"12\" height=\"12\" fill=\"none\" viewBox=\"0 0 12 12\">\n\t\t\t\t<path fill=\"#fff\" d=\"M2 0a2 2 0 0 0-2 2v2h1.5V2a.5.5 0 0 1 .5-.5h2V0H2Zm2 10.5H2a.5.5 0 0 1-.5-.5V8H0v2a2 2 0 0 0 2 2h2v-1.5ZM8 12v-1.5h2a.5.5 0 0 0 .5-.5V8H12v2a2 2 0 0 1-2 2H8Zm2-12a2 2 0 0 1 2 2v2h-1.5V2a.5.5 0 0 0-.5-.5H8V0h2Z\" \/>\n\t\t\t<\/svg>\n\t\t<\/button><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Drawing: Portrait of a Maravi man with star-shaped tattoos. <br>\u00a9 Private Archives and Collections of Huet de Froberville\/Photographer F. Lauginie \u00a9International Slavery Museum (ISM), Mauritius island<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<div style=\"height:22px\" aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"wp-block-spacer\"><\/div>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Mk\u016bto Germain<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>In Sainte-Marie, Froberville interviewed Mk\u016bto, who had been christened and given the name of Germain and who belonged to Louis de Tourris. Mk\u016bto was old enough to be married when he was taken out of his native country.<br>Referred to on Mauritius and Bourbon islands as the \u2018Moujaoua\u2019, \u2018Muj\u0101va\u2019 or \u2018Monjavane\u2019,<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.9971865323623301\" aria-label=\"AHF. Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville, <em>Cahier Mudhi\u0101ua<\/em>, page not numbered.\">&nbsp;<\/span> the Yao occupied a territory in the north-west region of what is now Mozambique. Yao captives were forced to walk sometimes several months before reaching the coast at Kilwa or Mo\u00e7ambique. A slave trader working in the Mascarene island in the early 19th century noticed that in the latter slave-trading port, the Yao represented the majority of the captives.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.07443908241697983\" aria-label=\"Epidariste Colin, 1809, p. 321.\">&nbsp;<\/span> Chained up and herded together in the ships, those who survived the sea crossing became slaves on the plantations on these islands. Mk\u016bto, who was one of these, had retained a memory of his country and the use of his language of origin. Froberville\u2019s notebooks contain some 30 pages of vocabulary, words translated from French by Mk\u016bto.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.4953073945469859\" aria-label=\"AHF. Eug\u00e8ne de Froberville, <em>Cahier Mudhi\u0101ua<\/em>page not numbered.\">&nbsp;<\/span><br>On Bourbon island, Yao may have been the language used by fugitive slaves to communicate among themselves. Published in a recent work by the historian J\u00e9r\u00e9my Boutier,<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.4771113506900049\" aria-label=\"I wish to express my warm thanks to J\u00e9r\u00e9my Boutier for the rich discussions we had during the \u2018Indian Ocean History Week\u2019 conference, organised by the International Indian Ocean Historical Association (AHIOI), which took place in Reunion from 20th to 22nd November 2023. J. Boutier and I set up a collaboration with the aim of carrying out research around the five enslaved person identified and to trace their life histories on Bourbon island.\">&nbsp;<\/span> a text by Auguste Logeais contemporary to the 1840s refers to dialogues between \u201cmaroon\u201d (fugitive) slaves using a hitherto unidentified African language.<span class=\"NOTE_MARKER\" rel=\"0.8276681709349047\" aria-label=\"Auguste Logeais, 2022.\">&nbsp;<\/span> On the basis of Froberville\u2019s notebooks, it has been possible to determine this language as being Yao.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-columns is-layout-flex wp-container-core-columns-is-layout-9d6595d7 wp-block-columns-is-layout-flex\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\">\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-style-default\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.calameo.com\/read\/00522093310aaff85aa27\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1094\" height=\"888\" src=\"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/loisirs-nouvelles-de-bourbon-p-70-71.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-12832\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/loisirs-nouvelles-de-bourbon-p-70-71.jpg 1094w, https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/loisirs-nouvelles-de-bourbon-p-70-71-300x244.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/loisirs-nouvelles-de-bourbon-p-70-71-1024x831.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/loisirs-nouvelles-de-bourbon-p-70-71-768x623.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 767px) 89vw, (max-width: 1000px) 54vw, (max-width: 1071px) 543px, 580px\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Extract of <em>\u2018Loisirs\u2019. Nouvelles de Bourbon<\/em> by Auguste Logeais, impr. P.A. Genesley-Portier, 1845. <br>Collection of Reunion departmental library<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<p>In the context of slavery, retaining memories of their East African country of origin, original names (individual and collective), languages or music and dances, can be seen as forms of cultural and identity resistance by the \u2018Mozambiques\u2019, who were among the last to be enslaved through the illegal trade to Bourbon island.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":5,"featured_media":12830,"parent":4042,"menu_order":20,"template":"","class_list":["post-13197","documentaire","type-documentaire","status-publish","has-post-thumbnail","hentry"],"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/documentaire\/13197","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/documentaire"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/documentaire"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/5"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/documentaire\/4042"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/12830"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.portail-esclavage-reunion.fr\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=13197"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}